A Grammar Handbook
Kenneth M. Keesee
Integrated Science and Technology Program
James Madison University
Material on this Web page copyright ã 1998 by Kenneth Michael Keesee.
Contents
I. General Tips on Writing Good Reports
II. Grammar Handbook
A. Spelling
B. Punctuation
1. Apostrophes
2. Colons
3. Commas
4. Dashes
5. Exclamation Marks
6. Hyphens
7. Italics
8. Parentheses
9. Periods
10. Question Marks
11. Quotation Marks
12. Semicolons
C. Grammatical Pitfalls
1. Sentence Fragments
2. Comma Splicing
3. Run-On Sentences
4. Ambiguous Pronoun Reference
5. Dangling Modifiers
6. Misplaced Modifiers
7. Subject Verb Disagreement
D. Mechanics
1. Numbers
2. Abbreviations
I. General Tips on Writing Good Reports
Have a good idea where you're going before you start writing. State your purpose first. A good way to follow this is by quickly listing all you can think of that needs to go in the report. Review the results of your brainstorming and proceed to organize them accordingly. Generate a rough draft quickly. Once a draft is created, it is easy to review for coherence and completeness. Spend the rest of your time revising and working on the details.
Write coherent paragraphs. Just like a complete paper, an effective paragraph has a structure: it begins with a topic sentence that orients the reader as to its direction, it supports that topic point logically, and it contains words and phrases that help the reader make the transition from one sentence to the next.
The most important part of a paragraph is the topic sentence. When writing technical reports, always make the first sentence of a paragraph the topic sentence. The logic is simple: you state your idea and then you explain or defend it. The topic sentence cues the reader into what's coming. Consider the following topic sentence:
Three major factors contributed to the decision to relocate the plant.
By opening a paragraph with this sentence, the writer provides the reader with a map for the rest of the paragraph. Do the same with every paragraph in your report.
The key to scientific writing is clarity. Don't be afraid to be simplistic. Plain talk is best. Choose simple, clear words and phrases. Avoid wordiness, unnecessary jargon, euphemisms, clichés, and indefinite adjectives and adverbs (e.g., great and greatly). State your facts as simply as possible. Save any literary devices and ornaments for a creative writing class.
Pay attention to grammar and mechanics. You may feel this involves being overly particular but poor grammar and mechanics detract from a paper's professionalism. Here is a general review of the general rules of grammar and mechanics. If you need more information, you can find numerous grammar handbooks in Carrier Library.
II. Grammar Handbook
A. Spelling
In the age of the microcomputer and word-processing, it goes without saying that a quality lab report should have no spelling errors. Spelling errors in your lab report suggest sloppiness and laziness. Always use the spell-check function.
B. Punctuation
Apostrophes
Apostrophes have three general uses: (1) to form possessives, (2) to form
plurals of letters and numbers, (3) to function for missing letters or
numbers.
Possessives:
Add an apostrophe and an s ('s) to form the possessive of
singular nouns, even if the noun already ends with an s.
John's, car's, linx's
In cases of plural nouns, add an apostrophe and an s ('s) to words
that don't end in s or add only an apostrophe to words that already
end in s.
men's, phenomena's, boys', turkeys'
Plural Forms
Use an apostrophe to form the plural of letters and numbers.
A's, Z's, 1's, 2's
Missing Letters and Numbers
Use an apostrophe to function as missing letters in contractions and
other instances where letters or numbers are omitted from words.
wasn't, it's, o'clock, '69 (as in 1969), cruisin' (as in cruising)
Colons
Use a colon to introduce a quotation, a list, an example or an explanation.
Example 1
John Doe held the following opinion of government:
Justice may be the end purpose of the law, but the purpose
of government is largely expedient and practical in nature,
inextricably connected with commercial interests.
Example 2
Jane was aware of the extreme pressure in the boiler: guidelines
called for her to employ the release valve.
Commas
Commas are used in the following instances:
Before a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses.
Jack recommended Jane for the new position, and Edgar
forwarded Jane's work evaluations to the hiring committee.
To separate items in a series.
Assembly requires a hammer, screwdriver, and glue.
After long introductory clauses or phrases.
Before Edgar could forward Jane's work evaluations to the
hiring committee, Jane was required to sign a release
statement.
Around parenthetical-type information (non-restrictive modifiers
and appositives).
Every non-restrictive appositive, a clause that corresponds
to the immediately preceding phrase, is set off by commas.
Other conventional uses:
Date June 16, 1904
Geographical Location Norfolk, Virginia
Abbreviations after Names John Doe, M.D.
Dashes
Use dashes to set off awkward parenthetical elements that break the flow
of the sentence or use excessive comma punctuation.
Example 1
A modern theory will speak to the grounds of the law--the
circumstances in which propositions of law should be accepted as
true or sound--and to the force of the law--the power of a
proposition of law to justify coercive enforcement.
Example 2
Many animals in the national park--deer, bear, antelope, and
mountain goats--are attracted by the food carried by visitors.
Exclamation Marks
Do not use exclamation marks in any lab report or research writing, except
where the exclamation mark is contained in a quotation.
Hyphens
Use hyphens to form certain compound words and to indicate number
ranges (e.g., 35-50). Avoid using hyphens to divide words at the end of
lines.
Examples of Hyphenated Compound Words:
African-American pro-choice
well-bred red-winged
ex-president self-taught
Italics
Represent italics by underlining the word. Do not use your computer or
word-processor to print italics.
Italics are used for the following:
Foreign words not yet part of the English language.
kursivdruck igniculus
Latin scientific terms.
Escherichia coli
Titles
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary
Parentheses
Use parentheses to enclose parenthetical information that is too lengthy or
confusing to enclose with commas or dashes.
Motivated by economic considerations (the protection of life,
liberty, and property), citizens create a social contract which
functions as the Rule of Law.
Periods
Use periods to end declarative and imperative sentences, to indicate
abbreviation, and as a decimal point.
Question Marks
Use question marks to end sentences that ask a direct question.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose short quotations (less than 50 words) and
titles of articles from periodicals.
Use single quotation marks to enclose quotations within quotations.
Semicolons
Use semicolons under the following circumstances:
To divide two related independent clauses not connected by a
coordinating conjunction.
Systole indicates a rhythmically recurrent contraction;
diastole indicates a rhythmically recurrent expansion.
To divide two independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction but requiring internal commas.
Tested against the gram-positive bacteria during the first
phase are Erythromycin, gentamicin, and polymixin; but
ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and streptomycin will be
reserved for the second phase.
In a series where the listed elements require internal commas.
Jack visited Leesburg, Virginia; Patterson, Missouri; Page,
Arizona; and Cairo, Illinois.
C. Grammatical Pitfalls (THIS SECTION IS STILL UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
Avoid sentence fragments (ex., The pressure loss caused by a worn gasket.)
Avoid comma splicing (ex., The printer is our best model, it offers power and versatility.)
Avoid run-on sentences (ex., The printer is our best model it offers power and versatility.)
Avoid the ambiguous pronoun reference (ex., Remove the cell cluster from the medium and
analyze it. [Analyze what, the cell cluster or the medium?])
Avoid dangling modifiers:
Having finished the job, the caps were removed. (Did the caps finish the job?)
Correct: Having finished the job, the workers removed the caps.
Avoid misplaced modifiers:
An engine may crack when cold water is poured in unless it is running.
(Does "unless it is running" refer to the water or the engine?)
Correct: Unless it is running, an engine may crack when cold water is poured in.
Maintain subject-verb number agreement:
Incorrect: The result of the tests are promising.
Correct: The result of the tests is promising. (subj. "result," correct verb "is")
D. Mechanics
Use of Numbers:
Use numerals for technical quantities, particularly if a unit of measurement is included.
3 feet, 12 grams, 43,219 square miles
Use numerals for nontechnical quantities of 10 or more.
300 persons, 12 whales, 35% increase
Use words for nontechnical quantities of fewer than 10.
three persons, nine whales
Use both words and numerals for back-to-back numbers
six 5-inch screws, fourteen 10-foot ladders
Use both words and numerals for round numbers over 999,999.
14 million light-years, $64 billion
If a number begins a sentence, use words, not numerals.
Thirty-seven acres was the agreed-upon size of the lot.
May be rewritten: The agreed-upon size was 37 acres.
Don't use both numerals and words in the same sentence to refer to the same unit.
On Tuesday the attendance was 13; on Wednesday, 8.
Write out approximations.
approximately ten thousand people
Use numerals for decimals (e.g., 3.14).
Add a zero before decimals of less than 1 (e.g., 0.156).
Use numerals for titles of figures/tables and for page numbers
Figure 1, Table 13, Page 287
Write out fractions, except if they are linked to technical units.
two-thirds of the members, 1/2 hp
Use of Abbreviations
If using an abbreviation that is not an abbreviation of a common measurement, reference the abbreviation parenthetically upon its first use.
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is your primary subject.
Most abbreviations do not take plurals.
1 lb, 3 lb
Most abbreviations in scientific writing are not followed by periods.
lb, cos, dc
If the abbreviation can be confused with another word, use a period.
in., Fig.
Spell out the unit if the number preceding it is spelled out or if no number precedes it.
How many square meters is the site?